R. Anilkumar in the ongoing study, Ecological appraisal and analysis of land use changes in Vellayani Lake basin: a study towards sustainable development appraises the present status of the lake-environment of Vellayani basin, the only fresh water lake in Thiruvananthapuram district. A comparison of the present status with the past ecology of the basin would help to understand the extent of degradation of the lake system. He also tries to analyse the land use changes in the basin to explain the change in the lake-environment. It is expected that the study would serve the purpose of creating an inventory of the lake-environment and provide a model for proper use of land and water resources in the region. PRA techniques, topographic maps, aerial photos, satellite imageries, meteorological data, and census reports are used for conducting the study.
Poochakunnu - evolution of a sense of belonging of the local community, is a short study by S. Unnikrishnan on the degradation of a hilly region in Thrissur district that was once a valuable biodiversity spot. It also narrates the attempts, albeit unsuccessful, made by a group of youngsters for restoring the resources. In the name of development, the hills are mined; sacred groves are desecrated and destroyed, and rare medicinal plants exterminated; paddy-fields in the valley reclaimed and the only source of perennial water stream of the panchayat has dried up.
Imbibed by the 'landman's soul', a few youngsters of the locality formed an organisation, Nattukuttam Padhanavedi to fight the brutal destruction of the hills braving the threats of various interest groups. Thanks to their attempts a feeling of belonging is developing in the local community towards environmental resources. However, the resources and their base are still not out of danger.
The social, economic, cultural, and ecological changes in the eastern boundary of Kannur district after Independence with special reference to environment and women's status: This study by Minimol K. Joseph is a multidisciplinary analysis of the various impacts of land use changes on the environment and the status of women. The study is nearing completion. Kannur is a district that experienced large-scale inmigration of farmers from central Kerala who in turn extensively converted the existing multi-crop area into monocrop rubber cultivation. The study would test the hypotheses that the changes have affected the ecology of the region adversely and lowered the socio-economic status of women.
In the study, Economic and ecological aspects of wetland agricultural practices in Kerala, Parameswara Kurup aims at analysing economic and ecological implications of rising crop shift and reclamation of wetland paddy-fields in Kerala. He aims to test the basic hypothesis that rice being an amphibian crop is the best suited for the wetlands in the study area.
In an urban system, interactions between man and his environment could become complex and multi-dimensional. The study, Transformation of urban ecology in Thiruvananthapuram (1901-'91) - an approach to micro-level planning by Raju Gopinath attempts to analyse this relationship with respect to Thiruvananthapuram city, the capital of Kerala. The study focuses on the impact of land use and demographic changes that have taken place in the area during 1901-1991 on the natural habitat. It might throw more light into some of the environmental problems faced by the city including frequent flooding.
The study, Wetland resources of northern Kerala: a case study of Pazhayangadi and Kunhimangalam in Kannur district by Nalini Nayak, D. Nandakumar, M. Amruth, P. Unnikrishnan, and T. P. Padmanabhan, has focussed mainly on issues of wetland conservation with involvement of the local people. The specific objectives are: (i) generation of baseline data on the wetlands of Kannur and discussion of the possible strategies for their sustainable utilisation; (ii) assessment of the extent of wetland destruction caused by infrastructure development; (iii) review of the major resource use systems and subsistence patterns in the study area; and (iv) assessment of ecological status of resource base as perceived by the community subsisting on it.
The study used an interdisciplinary approach with components of social sciences, geography, and ecology. Using gridded topographic maps, a matrix of most of the geographic and environmental features was prepared. A reconnaissance survey was made in which suitable field localities for socio-economic survey were identified and key persons for the documentation of oral history selected. Collection of specimens and preparation of the checklists of birds, butterflies, and other resources was also carried out. Resource management systems of wetland regions were investigated by conducting case studies and documenting oral history from senior citizens.
Wetlands of north Kerala present a typical case of tropical wetland conservation. The humid and wet tropical climate with heavy rainfall, runoff, and tidal flushing makes the backwater system of the study area highly dynamic. Heavy sediment load and fluctuating flow regime facilitate accretion of land by silt deposition. Thus develops a new land that is colonised by the mangroves that account for the productivity of the wetlands. The forests of this region are biologically rich with 13 species of mangroves and 28 species of mangrove associates representing a complete spectrum of life forms. The study locality has more than 90 species of birds among which 12 are migratory. Checklists of the shell and fin fishes of the study locality provide a picture of the economic importance of these water bodies. Six species of crabs, 16 species of molluscs, and about 7 species of prawns and lobsters that are economically important, have been recorded during the study.
The study warns that the wetlands of Kerala have been shrinking in area due to a variety of reasons. Comparison of the earlier topographic sheets and the latest satellite imageries has shown that the water spread area of the wetland has come down from about 34 to 31 sq. km; and that land under rice cultivation has fallen to one-third of the area within three decades. The case of mangrove vegetation is also similar. Apart from the spatial diminution, solid wastes dumped from the urban areas, effluents from factories, shrimp farms, coir-retting yards and construction of embankments have cost heavily to the physico-chemical characteristics of the wetlands. Water quality parameters of the wetland indicate seasonal changes due to variations in freshwater inflow in the monsoon and in the summer months. A marked difference was observed in the quality of water of the backwaters and of the old-growth mangrove forest, as the latter seems to buffer the change in water quality to a certain extent.
Household survey on the social environment of the study area has thrown some light on the man-wetland interaction. Nearly 40 per cent of the working population derives income directly from wetland-related activities such as agriculture, mat making, and fishery. It is found that the younger generation prefers occupations other than those in the traditional sector, such as mat making and agriculture.
However, it has been found that more and more people flock to fisheries to exploit the open-accessed resources of backwaters and sea. The existing sanitation arrangements raise serious questions with respect to control of water-borne diseases though the housing conditions are found satisfactory. Scarcity of potable water in wetland areas may sound ironical, but nearly 50 per cent of the sample households experiences scarcity of potable water during summer. People living in these areas are facing fuel wood scarcity; however, they manage it by either purchasing from outside or collecting from the coconut trees. The majority (65 per cent) who owns less than 20 cents of land cultivates kaippadu rice whereas those who own larger lands cultivate fresh water rice. Cattle owners use green fodder from the mangroves and sedge grass for supplementing cattle feed. The most widely demanded developmental interventions by the government are water supply schemes, power supply, and toilet facilities. In general, people are politically enlightened and are keenly aware of the political process that affects their daily lives.
Rapid urbanisation and the consequent development of infrastructure have taken a heavy toll on the wetlands. Large-scale mangrove destruction and the spatial spread of aquaculture farms threaten the very livelihood of the local population. Case studies of people involved in the traditional activities such as wetland agriculture, shell and fin fishery and mat-weaving and discussions with key persons and focus group interviews revealed that the fishery resources of the wetlands are currently exploited by a number of communities who had not been in this occupation. A mix of traditional and modern systems of fishing is observed in the wetlands. Increased cost of cultivation, labour scarcity, and low return of yield resulted in the decline of agriculture. Most of the freshwater paddy-fields have been transformed into coconut plantations and the kaippadu lands are being left fallow. The indigenous salt-resistant rice varieties in the kaippadu lands are getting forgotten and irrecoverably lost. Spread of shrimp farms has created considerable damage to the wetland ecosystem and conflicts in response among the local population. Some of the recommendations of the study are given below.
(i) Understanding of the inter-linkages and supportive systems that sustain the local community and the wetland eco-system should be the focus of development activities in the area;
(ii) Enacting and effectively implementing fishing regulations to manage the fishery is an important responsibility that the government has to undertake;
(iii) The use of stakes and gill nets needs to be regulated both in terms of mesh size and the time of use. Otherwise, it may lead to over-exploitation and progressive depletion of the stock;
(iv) Panchayat land should not be leased out to investors from outside the area for modern shrimp farming;
(v) The existing old growth mangroves are to be protected and conserved;
(vi) The raw material for weaving mats and kuriyas should be made available to people and this resource has to be enriched by planting local species;
(vii) Local women should be assisted to obtain the common lands on lease at low rates, where screwpines can be grown as a locally available raw material for mat-weaving; and
(viii) At the local level, panchayats have to take initiative to identify the areas, and the manner in which wetland loss is taking place and to develop appropriate sustainability measures.
Forests of Kerala, similar to other tropical forests of developing countries, have been under severe biotic pressures of population and livestock. Deforestation coupled with population pressure has resulted in chronic degradation of forest wealth, both quantitatively and qualitatively. In the project on Forest degradation in Kerala: causes and consequences, T. Jayanarayanan has looked into causes and consequences of forest degradation in the State. The subject being interdisciplinary, the problem has been studied at the levels of (i) Floristics of the forest area, particularly, the trees and under-storey strata; (ii) the forest-dependent communities in the adjoining panchayats; and (iii) livestock in the vicinity and the grazing pressures exerted by them on the floristic component. The analysis was made with the perspective that forests, agriculture, livestock, and socio-economic conditions of the people living in adjoining panchayats are interacting factors.
The study area, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary situated in central Kerala (Thrissur district), is encircled by seven panchayats. The floristic component of the sanctuary was studied using standard botanical techniques. The study revealed that deforestation was mainly due to encroachments by the land-greedy inmigrants. This resulted in decrease of the total forest area. Further, conversion of natural forests to plantations also produced some undesirable changes in biodiversity. Species richness at the under-storey level in plantations is only 0.14 against 0.24 in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. In moist deciduous forests it is 0.19. Hence, conversion of moist deciduous and particularly semi-evergreen and evergreen forests to plantation certainly affects their species richness and biodiversity. Grazing is of special concern in this context. It reduces the number of tree/shrub seedlings and increases herbaceous annuals like Mitracarpus verticillatus, Spermacoce spp., Chromolaena odorata, Cassia tora, Mimosa pudica, Phyllanthus urinaria etc.
The biotic pressure exerted on this forest tract is estimated by quantifying the impacts of population and livestock population separately. Two wards, adjoining the sanctuary area, one each from Madakkathara and Pazhayyannur panchayats have been surveyed for evaluating people's dependency on forests. A ward, four to five km away from the sanctuary has also been studied for making comparisons. The study revealed that people in the two wards adjoining the sanctuary have shown greater dependency for cooking fuel (79 per cent to 92 per cent), in contrast to 45 per cent of the people in the ward away from the sanctuary. Similar dependency is also noticed with regard to green manure. Certain sections of people also collect minor forest produce and there are instances of poaching as well. All these sections of people together constitute the forest-dependant community. Grazing practices are quite common in the wards adjoining the sanctuary while cattle-shed management predominates in the other. Studies using PRA techniques reveal that rice cultivation has declined in the area. Hence forest dependency is found to be higher near the sanctuary areas and characteristically low in the ward away from the sanctuary. The easy accessibility of forest produce and the laissez faire attitude of the government officials concerned are the factors for trespass into forests, for collection of firewood, manure and fodder, and wanton grazing.
The major recommendations of the study comprise the following:
(i) The identification of forest-dependent communities (FDC), and the extent of their dependency are of vital importance. Ways and means for control of forest-dependency are hence envisaged based on forest-dependent communities.
(ii) Deforestation can be effectively checked by the formation of a Panchayat Forestry Committee (PFC) with members from panchayats and local offices of forest, police, and revenue departments. This committee should be empowered to register and monitor the cases of forest offences and thus ensure speedy and timely action. In order to help the PFC, public vigilance committees (PVC) of senior citizens, school and college teachers, NGOs, and political activists may be constituted which will ensure the reporting of offences in time.
(iii) Diverting the forest-dependent communities to other sectors of employment would reduce degradation of forests. Afforestation programmes and establishment of permanent nurseries in panchayats are a few alternative sources of employment to the FDCs. Such activities would reduce their dependency on forests and moreover, they could be favourably oriented towards conservation. Revenue and common lands, abandoned plantations or similar barren lands may be leased to panchayats for raising plantations that yield fuelwood, fodder, manure, and even minor forest produce.
(iv) The PFC may be allowed to work in tandem with People's Planning Programme; their joint efforts may produce job opportunities, particularly to the FDC. The right beneficiaries from the adjacent village may be identified at the very initial stage of the programme and they may be permitted to make use of usufructs of the 'panchayat plantations' up to 50 per cent. The other 50 per cent may be shared between Forest Department and panchayat in the ratio 40:10.
(v) For developing landscapes, a holistic approach is required as the panchayat administration may change every five years. In order to implement projects of long duration (more than five years), as in the case of landscape development, a Hill Resource Management Society (HRMS) may be constituted with representatives from all the adjoining panchayats, representatives from each sector of FDC, and experts from Forestry, Ecology, etc.
The project on The western slope forests of the Western Ghats of Kerala: a study for eco-restoration planning by Sathishchandran Nair has five major objectives. The first is to develop an overview of the forest lands of the entire State on the basis of (i) landscape units; (ii) forest administrative units; (iii) drainage basins/sub-micro-watersheds; (iv) panchayats/wards; and (v) ecological criteria such as forest types and degradative stages. The second objective of the study is to select areas for detailed field survey, mapping, and documentation for priority eco-restorative action. The criteria for the selection include biodiversity value, watershed value, feasibility and suitability for implementing eco-restoration plans and social or administrative considerations such as habitat for vulnerable tribal communities, buffer zones of protected areas, and areas of extreme degradation. The third objective of the study is to develop detailed ground pictures initially for the priority areas and later for the entire slopes of the State depicting its ecological status. It is a kind of mapping exercise with the participation of local people, NGOs, and field-level officials of the Forest Department. Observations from the extensive fieldwork and existing data from literature survey are also used for enhancing accuracy. The fourth objective is to help prepare detailed action plans where eco-restoration action is going on or is envisaged. The fifth objective is the dissemination of the technical findings, recommendations, action plans etc., through public discussions.
After conducting a preliminary field and literature survey, the criteria and categories are evolved, based on which the locations of the intensive study areas on the western slopes of the Western Ghats are to be selected. The four broad categories identified are: (i) areas with extensive but not too degraded habitat wherein there is relatively less exploitative pressure. The focus is on biodiversity protection and aided natural regeneration of forests; (ii) areas with scattered small residual forest habitats, which have suffered extreme degradation; (iii) areas with extensive forestlands where forests are severely degraded but have critical ecological/biodiversity/watershed value; and (iv) degraded areas which are not very fragile ecologically but have extensive land potentially suitable for eco-restoration. As per these categories, various locations were selected.
In addition, various interactive sessions were organised in association with environmental NGOs, Forest Department officials, panchayat members, and forest protection committees in the selected areas to ensure people's participation in the eco-restoration process. Once the interactive meetings are completed in all the districts of the State, the participatory mapping and other restoration plans will be carried out in stages.
The communities living in and near the forestlands depend on the forests for both subsistence and for income generation. Tropical forests are, in general, the source of fuelwood, fodder, food, building materials, and a number of marketable non-wood forest products (NWFP). However, lack of clarity about property rights and incentives has resulted in the over-exploitation of the resource base beyond its sustainability. So the idea of incorporating woody, perennial, multipurpose trees in the homestead agro-forestry systems has received increasing attention in recent years. At the same time, the question of incorporation of farmers and traditional communities to the forests by providing them property rights and responsibilities is also looked into. The project entitled Ecology and economics of forest use in highland Malabar: a study of forest fragments and depended agro-scapes in Delampady panchayat, Kasargod district, Kerala implemented by M. Amruth, attempts to fill this lacuna by undertaking an in-depth analysis of forest use and agro-forestry systems in a selected locality in highland Malabar. The study site is a typical highland forest-fringing locality in Delampady in the Kasargod District.
The study concentrates on two major land use categories: (i) the forest fragments and (ii) the agro-forestry system. The forest fragment study tries to find out the extent and the nature of forest dependence by the tribal and the non-tribal communities living in the fringes. The ecological status of the forests was also analysed in terms of structure, diversity, productivity, and regeneration in relation to land tenure. As a part of agro-forestry systems, the structural and productivity components of various agro-forestry systems in the study area in relation to the forest dependence are also looked into. Various socio-economic factors influencing different types of land use in the context of forest biomass extraction were also studied. Methods such as participant observation, household surveys, stakeholder analysis, and PRA techniques are used in this study.
Human habitations are one of the ecosystems that also have diversity of plants and animals. However, researchers have rarely investigated these areas. The wealth and diversity of these eco-systems therefore remains largely unknown. Owing to prevailing ignorance, the floral and faunal wealth in our countryside is facing the threat of decimation. The study on Survey of biodiversity of Kalliassery panchayat of Kannur district by T. P. Sreedharan assumes importance against this background. The area has different landscapes - the laterate mesa, the slopes, the plains, and the marshy low-level. The main objective of the study is to identify the floristic and faunistic diversity of the panchayat, so that due consideration will be given to its conservation while formulating developmental strategies. The study uses techniques of field biology such as transects and quadrats of different size in each landscape elements (coconut garden, paddy-fields, sacred groove, etc.). Local people are interviewed to document the occurrence and use of various plants and animals. Elder citizens of the panchayat are also approached to document the changes in the landscape during the past 50 years. In addition, a group of 10-15 individuals were selected from the panchayat and given training to gather indigenous knowledge existing in the panchayat. Services of taxonomists, and expertise in the area of animal and plant sciences, are also availed in the survey of biodiversity. The major outcomes of the study comprise the following.
A checklist is prepared of smaller mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, ants, butterflies, and crabs found in the panchayat and its premises. The plants and animals found in mangroves and sacred groves of the panchayat were surveyed and documented. Plants with medicinal properties and economically important species are also recorded. In addition, the knowledge of local communities especially with regard to medicinal plant usage, cultivated crops, etc., was documented. The ongoing changes in biodiversity, the forces responsible for these changes, and also the reaction of the local people to these changes are traced through the survey.
M. Jayarajan and his team members are carrying out a study of Sacred groves in north Malabar - the extent of human intervention and social sustainability. It constitutes an attempt to develop a participatory approach for inventorying the biodiversity of sacred groves and to highlight the ecological importance of the sacred groves. It also analyses the social conditions that are essential for ensuring the long-term conservation of sacred groves.
The study was planned in two phases. In the first phase, a detailed listing of the groves in the study area including landscape and ownership pattern was taken up. The external influences leading to the degradation of sacred groves were listed by analysing the data on clearing the groves, select felling, hunting, poaching, gathering, grazing, cultivation, pollution, details of encroachments, etc.
A total of 418 sacred groves were located in the study area. Certain panchayats and municipalities have no significant area of sacred groves. The largest grove located is Kottiyur Sacred Forest having an area of 90 acres. The total area of the entire groves located in the study region is 2.59 sq. km. The number of groves varies from 1 to 36 per panchayat, with an average of 4 sacred groves per local body. Of the total, 337 groves have evergreen vegetation and 34 are semi-evergreen. Others are either deciduous or scrub type and one has mangroves. Most of the sacred groves are located in the midland. Only 13 are found in the coastal region.
Ownership of the sacred groves was classified into individual family, family clusters, trusts of various communities, NSS, SNDP, Devaswom, and Government (Forest Department). The majority of the groves are owned by trusts of family clusters (Tharavadu) and by individual families. Almost all the Hindu communities have sacred groves owned by their trusts. Muslims have three sacred groves associated with their Makhams. The Kusava (potter) community has a special right in many sacred groves. Theyyam is the most important ritual in the area.
Regarding conservation status and threats to these sacred groves, a religious reason was often given for using resources from the groves. Timber from groves was used to construct temples. Some temples were built inside the groves. Many village communities yearn to keep pace with the all-pervasive cultural changes that further degrade the sacred groves. Certain groves have become victims of the market economy. Tree felling is the major problem and subsequently, the exposure of sun light results in the invasion of exotic weeds like Eupatorium. Collection of cane from the groves also degrades the vegetation every year. Five per cent of the groves faces the problem of encroachment. A workshop conducted as part of the project for the stakeholders of the groves was found successful in creating awareness on the ecological importance of the groves.
The study is almost complete and a few more workshops and awareness campaigns are on the anvil. As policy measures, the study recommends that proper guidance needs to be given to the owners of the sacred groves for availing help from local bodies and Forest Department for protection of the sacred groves. Planning needs to be done to educate people at the local level on the importance of the sacred groves.
The study on the Implications of the Convention on Biological Diversity of Kerala by S. Faizi aims at discussing the implications of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) for Kerala. It examines the relevant provisions of CBD and proposes policy changes, institutional reforms, and capacity building. The researcher uses secondary literature and related information on CBD. Information was also gathered from various government agencies, research organisations, NGOs, local bodies, and community groups.
India has ratified CBD and the Ministry of Environment and Forests has developed a draft bill for introduction in the Parliament. The CBD has an important bearing on Kerala, as a bio-rich State. Kerala has about 3,700 species of vascular plants of which 100 are endemic. About 30 species are listed in the red data book for conservation priority. The avifauna (birds) comprise about 470 species. Kerala is a wintering ground for a large number of both forest and water birds. It also harbours rare mammals like Asian elephant, tiger, Nilgiri Tahr and the arboreal lion-tailed macaque.
Apart from these, tribal communities, repositories of valuable knowledge about the forests and their uses, live along the Western Ghats and its foothills. As an existing biodiversity conservation measure, a network of 12 sanctuaries and two national parks has been established in the State.
However, their management is still based on the orthodox doctrine of regarding communities as alien. An area of 2,315 sq. km of protected forests covers about 6 per cent of land area of the State and 24.6 per cent of its forest area.
In addition, Kerala is the source of origin of several crops, especially spices such as pepper, turmeric, ginger, cardamom, and cinnamon. Wild relatives of these plants are still found in these forests.
Six species of lemon grass and 10 species of wild pepper are recorded in Kerala. It has been estimated that 2,865 plant species of Kerala have economic value. Of these, 900 species are used in herbal medicine. The agro-biodiversity and the biodiversity at the village level that spreads on to farms, homesteads, sacred groves, mangroves, and a large network of wetlands are also significant. A survey conducted among the participants, representing various government departments in a workshop on biodiversity, showed that there exists little awareness about the scope offered by CBD.
A short study done by Susan Panicker, Studies on the economic and ecological aspects of the effect of crop protection chemicals on the microbial flora of soil and aquatic environments in central Kerala, analyses the problem of environmental degradation caused by the application of fertiliser and pesticides in agriculture.
The gravity of the problem lies in the fact that the microbial flora of soil and aquatic bodies which are the integral components in maintaining the ecological balance of these systems are the ones affected severely. The human health hazards from the pesticides are also large.
By employing chemical analysis of samples of soil and water from the paddy-fields of central Kerala, the study has found that Gram positive microbes which are very essential for the healthy systems were more susceptible to crop protection chemicals and were inhibited in soil and water.
The study argues for measures to curtail the use of these chemicals and suggests introduction of rice-and-fish rotation farming in the low-lying wetlands.
Pollution hazards on the people and the ecosystem of selected coir-retting yards in the backwaters of Calicut district: This study is nearing completion. The primary objective of the study, done by E. Nirmala, is to assess the impact of coconut husk-retting on water bodies in terms of water quality, and air, and on the health status of the local people, especially, women.
Physico-chemical and biological analysis of water and sediment samples and a socio-economic and health survey of the sample households are the methods employed. The interim report shows that lack of safe drinking water, respiratory diseases, and headache are widely experienced in the study area.
Environmental quality and health in Nattakom panchayat: a preliminary study by N. Valsalakumar assesses the impact of environmental degradation due to industrial pollution on the health of the people. Nattakom panchayat is an apt place to study the same because it is an industrialised region with two major industries and 671 small-scale industrial units. Morbidity data from local hospitals, analysis of water samples, and the study of air-borne dust of the area are the data sources proposed for the study.
KRPLLD funded a few research projects to study the nature, quantity, and management possibilities of solid wastes in various locations of Kerala, viz. Palakkad, Chalakudy, Kottayam, and Thiruvananthapuram. One of these studies entitled Preparation of action plan for solid waste management of Thiruvananthapuram City and establishment of an environmental information system by Babu Ambat has completed first phase. The second phase consists of a study of the attitude and perception of community towards solid waste management. The second phase is now on.
The study identified the types and estimated the quantities of waste generated in each ward of Thiruvananthapuram City Corporation. Information was also collected on the existing waste management system and future technology options. Technology optimisation studies were also conducted at laboratory level and field level. Pilot-scale models for solid waste management were implemented at two wards of Thiruvananthapuram Corporation and also at Centre for Development Studies (CDS) Campus. The sample survey conducted at 50 wards of Thiruvananthapuram city, shows that a total of 290-300 tons of solid waste are generated per day out of which 181 tones are from households. The waste generated by shops and commercial establishments recover most of the recyclable materials from the waste before final disposal. The hotels and restaurants generate about 30 tons of degradable waste per day while markets produce about 40 tons of waste per day.
The hospitals and clinical laboratories of Thiruvananthapuram City generate both infectious and non-infectious wastes, which comes to about 13 tons per day (Table 7.2). The other sources of waste generated in the City are offices, educational institutions, marriage halls, slaughterhouses etc.
A detailed study was conducted on the informal sector involving collection of non-degradable wastes like plastics, paper, metals, and glasses. During the study the investigator could identify more than 500 rag pickers, who were involved in collecting non-degradable wastes directly from the sources or from the waste dumps. The rag pickers sell these wastes to the wholesale waste collectors who transport them mainly to Salem and Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu for recycling. The technology optimisation study shows that composting is the most suitable method for waste management in the city, as the majority of the waste generated is degradable in nature. About 50 per cent of the waste generated is organic substances, suitable for composting. Biomethanation is another waste-processing technology that may be tried for institutions, hotels, and marriage halls. Information collected through various surveys and pilot-scale implementation studies has been made use of for formulating an action plan for the Thiruvananthapuram City.
The major components of the Solid Waste Management action plan are the following:
(i) Segregation and characterisation of the wastes at the source itself, whether it is household, market, institutions, hospitals, etc;
(i) Decentralised collection from the primary source and centralised collection from secondary sources;
(iii) Collection of non-degradable wastes from households/markets etc., by the rag pickers to supply to the recycling units. The existing system of collection by rag pickers has to be strengthened by providing to them proper training and assigning them responsibility of specific areas;
(iv) Processing of degradable wastes in each household/community itself to the extent possible through composting or vermi-composting. Centralised processing system like mechanical composting is suggested for market/institutions and other large sources of wastes. This method may be used also for household wastes where household level composting is not possible;
(v) Detailed transportation network planning for transfer and transport of the wastes, taking into consideration the shortest route from the collection centre to management site, traffic density, time of operation etc., can be done using GIS;
(vi) Establishing common facility for management of hospital wastes/hazardous wastes either by the City Corporation or by the institution themselves;
(vii) Ward-level as well as residential association level planning is essential for sustainable waste management. Ward-level planning can be organised under the leadership of Ward Sanitation Committee;
(viii) An organisational set-up starting from the NHG/Residential Association to Ward Sanitation Committee and Corporation-level Public Health Committee has been suggested. The planning at the bottom level, implementation, and monitoring etc., can be carried out under this organisational set-up;
(ix) Training programmes to various target groups to orient them in various activities to be carried out under this strategy;
(x) One of the major aspects in any waste management programme is its sustainability, which depends on the level of community participation. Hence, a high voltage campaign to involve the community in a participatory process of waste management is suggested; and
(xi) Finally, the process of solid waste management in any city requires co-ordinated activities of various agencies i.e., local bodies, community groups, departments and other agencies. The City Corporation should initiate a dialogue with these agencies and community groups to implement a sustainable waste management programme.
After completing the first phase, the above study is entering its second phase to investigate the social engineering aspects related to solid waste management. The views, ideas, concepts, and perceptions of the people about the solid waste problems, present management systems, and prospective management options are the various aspects that will be looked into during the second phase. It also plans to collect information about the willingness of the people and Corporation authorities to co-operate in a decentralised action programme for segregation, collection, and processing of solid waste management in the city.
The project on Solid waste management in Kottayam town by Varkey Mathew has two phases. Phase I consists of a detailed study to analyse the quality and quantity of solid wastes generated in Kottayam Town. Phase II is action research for the disposal of the solid waste by way of recycling/reuse, at the local level without involving the need for transportation and massive disposal. As part of phase I, a detailed documentation of the existing system of solid waste management in Kottayam town was made. Information was collected on the quantity and quality of the wastes being generated in households. Random and cluster sampling methods were used for selecting households. Daily information on the wastes, for one week consecutively, was noted. Data relating to business/industrial establishments remain to be collected. Information was also collected on the infrastructure (includes manpower, vehicles, instruments, and other materials) available with the municipality for collection and disposal of solid wastes. Observing that the road conditions play a very important role in the collection and transportation of solid wastes, details of the road networks and their width were documented. Simultaneously, phase II works are being carried out. Experiments on vermi-culture and vermi-composting are continuing for the processing of organic wastes.
Tests and experiments in recycling of plastics are also being conducted. To recycle the wastes of plastic types, they are to be grouped according to types having close melting or softening temperatures. The common waste materials are collected and then the melting/softening temperatures of representative materials are determined by thermogravimetric (TG) analysis.
The total quantity of solid waste generated in Kottayam municipality per day is estimated to be as follows: Domestic wastes - 28 tons, Commercial sector and market wastes - 9 tons, Hospitals and clinics wastes - 2 tons. As per the overall estimation, in a day, 39 tons of solid waste was produced in Kottayam town and the combined per capita waste generation is estimated as 0.62 kg/per day. It was found that the expenditure for solid waste management during 1997-'98 was Rs 1.88 crore, which is 40 per cent of the revenue expenditure. The storage capacity of community bins is grossly inadequate, since fly-tripping and open-throwing is very common. Most of the metal tanks/bins are now either damaged or rusted. Reusable, recyclable, and processable materials are wasted. Soil, water and, air get polluted, especially from the dumping area. Narrowness of the majority of the roads and the undulating relief of the town largely affect the collection of wastes. The thermo-gravimetric analysis of the data indicates the melting/softening temperatures of samples and the temperatures at which these wastes burn out. The softening temperature for recycling is determined for about 10 common plastic wastes. While continuing the survey and other laboratory experiments, more programmes for interaction together with the authorities and support are being planned.
Promoting waste treatment initiatives in local self government institutions in Kerala through technology adaptation and transfer by V. R. Raghunandanan aims at developing an appropriate technology package for the management of solid wastes in the local bodies of Kerala. The whole process of waste management (viz. generation, storage, collection, transportation, disposal, and processing) is brought under the purview of this study. The programme is implemented with the co-operation of the local bodies and people of the locality. The conflict of interests likely to arise from the political and administrative set-up of the local bodies as well as from the reactions and responses of the people towards waste disposal are also brought under the scope of the study.
The specific objectives of the project are (i) to assess the technological options available for municipal solid waste treatment and develop appropriate technologies suited to specific field conditions prevailing in various towns and municipalities in Kerala; (ii) to conduct awareness training programmes and develop technical support groups to promote waste treatment initiatives in local self-government institutions (LSGI); and (iii) to promote a participatory waste management system in three
LSGI through development and transfer of locally adaptable and sustainable technology. The infrastructure for window composting and vermi-composting and a back-up unit to facilitate chemical analysis of waste and compost samples have been developed. As a result of the experiments, a package for waste treatment has been made. And some improvisation of treatment methods by using Silpaulin sheets and different inoculums for managing the common defects in composting have been introduced. The quality analysis of the compost obtained through the improvised methods shows a C/N ratio between 10-20 and the nitrogen content between 1.5 and 2. This complies with the specification of good quality compost.
In addition to the above experiments, a preliminary survey was conducted in 10 selected local bodies of Palakkad and a few other panchayats and municipalities the problems of which had been highlighted in the media. The survey encompasses queries on the physical characteristics of the waste, the quantity of waste generated in each of the areas, storage of waste at source, transportation and disposal of wastes etc.
The problems encountered in the course of the project implementation include the difficulty encountered in getting waste from the concerned municipality for research purposes, doing the composting by using the mixed type of wastes, and finding solution for the foul smell emanating from partially digested waste due to absence of daily collection. Absence of proper system for disposal of biomedical waste, non-availability of labour, lack of facilities to handle waste, lack of monitoring in waste collection, and lack of interest of local bodies are also serious problems.
Further, the project envisages more studies on composting with reference to the effect of seasonal variations, options for aeration, use of different species of earth worms, optimisation of space and labour requirement, etc. A plan to analyse the feedback from the public in Chalakudy and to make the required modifications is also in its agenda. As part of the extension activities, a few more observations and further training to the workers are planned. Finally, the standardised technology is proposed to be transferred to the respective panchayats.
A comprehensive study on collection, disposal, and management of solid wastes in Palakkad municipal area and research on new composting techniques by P. R. Sreemahadevan Pillai has, in his project, launched a comprehensive survey on the quantum, category, and nature of wastes generated in the municipality. Based on the data, appropriate treatment and disposal methods will be developed. Simultaneously, laboratory research is taken up to evolve an optimum method for composting under controlled temperature. In the light of the survey results and the laboratory experiments, waste treatment would be experimented, using different techniques, at a few sample areas selected from Palakkad municipality. The survey covers households, shops, and other establishments. Samples of wastes collected from the six zonal dumping yards of the municipality reveal that all the dumping yards have got mixed wastes, similar to the ones found at the main dumping yard . Simultaneously, the physical and chemical composition of the waste is analysed in the laboratory. The C/N ratio is calculated as 33.62 and the pH as 8.00.
Further, the project plans to conduct more studies on new composting techniques in the laboratory and the field. Preparation of route maps and plans for the collection of wastes in the municipality, awareness programmes for the municipal staff and the public, municipal authorities and implementing agencies for establishment of a composting unit, public contact programmes for awareness creation and providing technical assistance for the implementation and operation of the units are the other components of the project.